Category: Know Your Coffee Birds series Page 1 of 2

Male Red Siskin. Photo by Linda De Volder under a Creative Commons license.

Here’s a entry in the occasional Know Your Coffee Bird series, which profiles birds that utilize shade coffee farms. This post is about a species people might not immediately connect with coffee. It is a finch, related to more familiar goldfinches (both American and European), and like them primarily eats seeds and favors a variety of open or semi-open habitats. This is in contrast to the insect- and fruit-eating birds inhabiting tropical forests that we tend to associate with coffee farms. Let’s talk about the endangered Red Siskin (Spinus [formerly Carduelis] cucullatus).

The Red Siskin never had a large range, being primarily found along the northern coast of Venezuela, just edging into Colombia. Once common, populations are now critically fragmented across this area and it is estimated that somewhere between 1500 to 7000 birds (at best) remain in the wild; this includes a relatively recent location found in Guyana. Red Siskins are considered so iconic in Venezuela that they are depicted on the country’s currency. Streets, a park, and even the country’s Little League team is named for them (“cardenalito” in Spanish).

Habitat loss has played a role in the decline of the Red Siskin, but unsustainable trapping for the cage bird trade is a major reason for the near-disappearance of this species. Males are prized for their bright coloration (females are duller) and their ability to mate with the common canary, introducing their red coloration to future generations of canaries. Because Red Siskins can be harder to raise in captivity, wild birds are continually captured to maintain the red genes in canaries — which is actually unnecessary from a genetic standpoint. Although trapping in Venezuela has been illegal for decades, the increasing rarity of these birds, the poverty-inducing economic crisis and political upheaval in Venezuela combine to make illegal trade in the birds lucrative for both greedy poachers and desperate citizens.

In 2015, the Red Siskin Initiative was established among many partner organizations to address the precipitous declines. Strategies include research, captive colonies with the aim to breed siskins for reintroduction, reducing overexploitation, and public education. An important component of this initiative is habitat preservation and income security through coffee farming.

Venezuela once had a thriving coffee industry which was eclipsed by the oil economy and grew out of favor due to government price controls that make coffee farming unprofitable and unsustainable. However, Bird-Friendly coffee certification (which requires organic certification) qualifies the coffee as gourmet, exempt from the price controls, and allows it to be sold at a premium. In addition to organic farming methods, Bird-Friendly certification has requirements regarding shade cover and composition, native tree diversity, and other criteria that provide habitat for birds, including Red Siskins. Partners also provide technical assistance and help producers with capacity-building.

In 2019, nearly 40 farms occupying 165 ha, members of the AsociaciÁ³n Civil de Productores Agroforestales—Piedra de Cachimbo y Florida (ACAFLO), obtained organic certification, with 13 also gaining Bird-Friendly certification. The goal is to expand the certified production area to 400 ha by the end of 2021. Venezuela exports little or no coffee these days, and the situation is dire there. I really hope for the success of this project, and look forward to being able to purchase this coffee to support this great conservation initiative. The establishment of Bird-Friendly certified coffee farms will provide a sustainable livelihood for farmers and preserve habitat for Red Siskins and many other bird and wildlife species.

Pair of Red Siskins. From a plate in Bird Notes, scanned by the Biodiversity Heritage Library.

More reading:

• Saving Red Gold: The International Effort to Rescue Red Siskins (American Bird Conservancy)
• Coffee and Chocolate Could Help Preserve Endangered Birds in Venezuela (Smithsonian Magazine)
• The Red Canary (Tim Birkhead)
• Venezuela: Coffee Annual (2020, USDA)
• From Red Siskin Science, New Paths and Opportunities in Guyana (Smithsonian)

Elfin-woods Warbler. Photos by Mike Morel/USFWS under a Creative Commons license.

It has been awhile since I have posted an entry in the Know Your Coffee Bird series, which profiles birds that utilize shade coffee farms. This post is about a species that was not on my short list for an upcoming account, but has a very special, recently defined connection to coffee.

The Elfin-woods Warbler (Setophaga angelae) is one of over 100 species of warblers found in the New World, and is only found in Puerto Rico. Discovered and described less than 50 years ago, it is named for a unique habitat it favors — elfin woods. High humidity and rainfall, strong winds, and nutrient-poor soils result in the short, often twisted trees (dominated by only a few species) that are characteristic of these forests, found between 750-850 meters. More recently, the warbler has also adapted to lower wet forests at 600-900 meters. This bird may have eluded discovery for so long due to being very similar in appearance to another species I have profiled as a coffee bird, the Black-and-white Warbler, which nests in North America but winters in Puerto Rico.

The Elfin-woods Warbler was likely always rare, and it was proposed for listing under the Endangered Species Act in 1982. Habitat loss and degradation due to development, agriculture, and hurricanes are among the factors that drove population declines in the following decades. The current estimate is fewer than 2000 individuals in two populations: in the El Yunque National Forest in the eastern part of the island, and in Maricao Commonwealth Forest and adjacent private lands in the west. Part of the latter is an Important Bird Area designated by BirdLife International.

Earlier this month, after years of languishing as a candidate, the warbler was finally designated as Threatened under the Endangered Species Act.

Elfin-woods Warbler. Photos by Mike Morel/USFWS under a Creative Commons license.

When a species is afforded protected status under the Act, “critical habitat” is designated. These are areas that are essential to conservation and which may require special management efforts. Critical habitat for the Elfin-woods Warbler is largely public land, but does contain private holdings including coffee farms and potential coffee-growing land adjacent to the Maricao Commonwealth Forest. The warblers have been detected in shade coffee plantations, but not in sun coffee farms. Thus, in the critical habitat areas, conversion of shade coffee to sun coffee will be prohibited. Conversely, the planting of shade trees on sun coffee farms is encouraged. Provisions for coffee growers in this area also allow for pruning of shade and coffee trees, but only outside of the nesting season. Herbicides and pesticides may be used, but only during the first two years or so while the coffee and shade trees are becoming established (a time in which the warblers are not likely to use the farm).

Previous research has indicated that much of Puerto Rico’s coffee is not grown under shade, but that farmers are willing to convert to shade if they were encouraged to do so by incentives such as being supplied with shade trees to plant.  Since 2010, the US Fish and Wildlife Service has been working on habitat restoration initiatives in the Maricao coffee growing area through the Partners for Fish and Wildlife program. This has included technical and financial assistance to landowners to establish and restore shade coffee.  The listing of the Elfin-woods Warbler will likely provide more incentive and opportunity for farmers to create and enhance shade coffee, to the benefit of this interesting bird and other biodiversity associated with its habitats.

Read more:

• Birdwatching Magazine: Elfin-woods Warbler added to endangered species list
• Courthouse News Service: Warbler’s listing cuts coffee growers a break
• Federal Register: USFWS ruling and details on listing
• Federal Register: Portion of ruling that outlines measures impacting coffee farms
• USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service: Info on initiatives to provide aid to coffee farmers to plant shade trees
• Cafiesencia: Puerto Rican non-profit with many rural community projects, often focusing on coffee-growing communities; projects include assisting landowners with forest management plans in the Maricao area for the benefit of birds, biodiversity, and farmers.

I have yet to meet someone who has seen an American Redstart (Setophaga ruticilla) who was not charmed by this bright, energetic little bird. Redstarts are warblers, but like many New World birds bear the name of similar-appearing (though unrelated) Old World birds. In this case, the original redstarts are flycatchers that often have patterns in black and red. Likewise, male American Redstarts that are at least two years old are jet black and vivid orange. Younger males and female American Redstarts are gray and salmon or yellow, but no less beautiful.

American Redstarts breed across much of eastern North America and western Canada, and winter in the West Indies, southern Mexico, Central America, and northern South America. Like other warblers, they feed primarily on insects, and may flush them from foliage by spreading and flashing their tails. This has earned them several other names, particularly in the tropics, including candelita (“little candle” or “little flame”) or mariposas (the same word used for butterflies).

In winter, redstarts can be found in a variety of forested habitats. They are particularly well-studied in the West Indies, where they are most often found in mangroves, coastal scrub, and shade coffee. In Jamaica, redstarts have been found to greatly benefit coffee farmers by providing pest control, especially against the hard-to-control coffee berry borer, one of coffee’s most dreaded pests. To reap these benefits, however, farmers needed to provide habitat for the birds, either via shade trees or adjacent forest patches. Another vote for shade-grown coffee!

In the Dominican Republic, redstarts returned annually and stayed put overwinter on shade coffee farms at rates similar to natural forest [1]. Other studies have specifically documented shade coffee use by redstarts in Mexico, Venezuela, and Guatemala; and I have recorded them myself in coffeelands in Panama and Honduras.

A recently published paper [2] presented data on a very rigorous study of wintering migrant birds in Puerto Rico that began in 1973, in which American Redstarts are among the three most common species (the other two are also “coffee birds”: Ovenbird and Black-and-white Warbler). All three species have shown population declines, even though overwinter survivorship has remained the same for the birds that do winter there. The most dramatic declines have occurred over the last decade, but the authors cannot pinpoint an explanation. They concluded with words seldom found in academic publications:

“Given the patterns shown by our data, we now join with those who earlier proclaimed that ‘the sky is falling’ for Neotropical migratory birds, even though we lack a ready explanation for these declines.”

Please see this as a call to action. This is one of many studies that have documented the loss of migratory bird species. These “birds of two worlds” have very complex life cycles, and many things impact their survival. Some of these factors are within our control, and they include habitat loss due to agriculture — such as coffee.  You can help by choosing your coffee carefully and being willing to pay more for organic and eco-certified coffee that encourages the preservation of habitat and enhancement of coffee farms with shade trees. Seldom is so simple an individual action apt to lead to such positive results for redstarts, other warblers, and the biodiversity and health of our planet.

See more in the ”Know your coffee birds” series.

Photo of male redstart by Laura Gooch under a Creative Commons license; female redstart banded at the Rouge River Bird Observatory by Julie Craves, all rights reserved.

[1] Wunderle, J and SC Latta. 2000. Winter site fidelity of Nearctic migrants in shade coffee plantations of different sizes in the Dominican Republic. Auk 117:596-614.

[2] Faaborg J, WJ Arendt, J D Toms, KM Dugger, WA Cox and MC Mora. 2013. Long-term decline of a winter-resident bird community in Puerto Rico. Biodiversity and Conservation 22:63-75.

The Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus) is often heard before it is seen, a loud ringing “tea-cher, TEA-cher, TEA-CHER!” broadcast from close to the forest floor through much of the eastern U.S. and Canada during the nesting season. Ovenbirds are large warblers, no relation to the Ovenbird family Furnariidae found in the tropics. However, both the warbler and the family share a basic brown color palette, and are named for their curious domed, Dutch oven-like nests which, in the case of the warbler, are build on the ground.

Ovenbirds winter primarily in the Caribbean and Central America. There, they forage on or close to the ground, where much of their diet is comprised of ants. This habit of scratching and leaf-flicking on the forest floor has earned them the name “Betsy Kick-up” in Jamaica! Ovenbirds are frequently found in shade coffee plantations, where they may also feed on female coffee berry borers that are laying eggs in fallen coffee cherries, thus performing a great service to coffee farmers.

Migrant (and resident) bird species have been monitored in Puerto Rico since 1973 in a study where Ovenbirds have been one of the most common species. Their numbers have declined to less than 20% of their original abundance. Some of the declines are related to variable rainfall patterns (which will be exacerbated by climate change), and some to conditions on their breeding grounds (see below). But similar declines in resident Puerto Rican birds in the same study indicate there are undiscovered factors occurring on the wintering grounds as well.

On their North American breeding grounds, Ovenbirds need large forests to breed in, and habitat loss and fragmentation has taken its toll. Even in large forests in northern regions, declines in reproductive success are tied to, believe it or not, earthworms.

Due to the last glaciation, Canada, the upper Midwest, and New England have no native earthworms — all of the worms are introduced. Their efficient consumption of leaf litter on the forest floor has greatly altered many forests. Plants that require a thick organic layer in some forests have declined, leaving less cover for Ovenbird nests, which then fall to predators. Ovenbirds also rely on the insects and invertebrates that live in leaf litter, which are also far less abundant in habitats invaded by non-native worms. These factors are thought to be driving declines in some breeding populations of Ovenbirds.

Ovenbirds found on shade coffee farms help farmers by eating pests, and have found safe haven in winter. Choosing shade-grown coffee can help support populations of this charismatic songbird so that future generations can enjoy its distinctive summer song.

More coffee birds here.

Ovenbird photo by Julie Craves, all rights reserved. Banded by the Rouge River Bird Observatory, Dearborn, MI.

Western Ghats in pink and purple; purple portion is approximate range of Malabar Barbet.

The Malabar Barbet (Megalaima malabarica) is a bird that is endemic to India. Once considered a subspecies of Crimson-fronted Barbet, Megalaima rubricapillus, which has a broader range, the Malabar Barbet is found in only the Western Ghats from Goa south to Kerala and western Tamil Nadu. There, it inhabits evergreen and moist deciduous forests, generally below 1200 m, and is often found in high quality shade coffee plantations.

Coffee plantations cover about 6% (around 830,000 ha) in the Western Ghats, and while all the coffee is grown under shade, the quality of the shade varies. A diverse mix of native shade trees is the highest quality, and it has been found that these types of farms have similar diversity of birds and other wildlife as is found in nearby forests — the same situation is true in Latin America. However, various laws and restrictions on cutting native trees (which could provide value to wildlife and as harvestable timber, for example) are much more strict in India. This, in part, has led to the widespread planting of silver or silky oak (Grevillea robusta), a fast-growing tree native to Australia.

Although Grevillea has flowers that can be attractive to nectar-feeding birds, it does not have fleshy fruit, important to many birds. Because it is harvested for timber, the areas where it is planted are subject to periodic disturbance and alteration. One study* found that in shade coffee farms in the Ghats, an increase in the proportion of silver oak from 33% to 55% was associated with 91% reduction in the abundance of the Malabar Barbet. This is more evidence that certifications that merely require shade as a percent of canopy cover will not help enhance or preserve biodiversity — “shade” certification should also include a mix of shade tree species and a requirement that a percentage of them be native species.

Barbets in general are small-to-medium, stout birds with short tails, big heads, and strong, thick bills. They are found all over the world in tropical regions. Barbets eat primarily fruit, and Malabar Barbets, like many other species, forage in the forest canopy (perhaps one reason there are few good photos of this species!). Ficus trees and their fruits are especially important. While many small fruit-eating birds swallow fruits whole, Malabar Barbets will also sit and pick on fruits too large to swallow. Ficus are often used as shade trees in shade coffee farms in India.

Barbets are related to woodpeckers, and like them nest in tree holes. Malabar Barbets typically use holes that they excavate themselves which are located on the underside of small branches, where they raise one or two young per nest. Thus, it is important for them to have trees with dead branches in their territories for nesting — something that isn’t too typical on a shade coffee farm where Grevillea is harvested.

There are nearly many species of birds found only in the Western Ghats. A number of them use shade coffee farms either directly, or as corridors that connect more suitable forest habitat.

Photo of the Malabar Barbet taken in the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, by Sandeep Gangadharan under a Creative Commons license.

*Anand, O. M., J. Krishnaswamy, and A. Das. 2008. Proximity to forests drives bird conservation value of coffee plantations: implications for certification. Ecological Applications 18:1754-1763.

Many birders have a “spark bird,” a species that captured their attention and inspired lifelong interest in birds. For me, it was the Scarlet Tanager (Piranga olivacea). As a young girl I was given a copy of The Bird Guide: Land Birds East of the Rockies by an elderly neighbor, a vintage book even back then. In studying the illustrations, I could not believe that a bird as bright and stunning as the Scarlet Tanager could be found in Michigan; if so, it surely could not be as brilliant as the book portrayed. It was some years before I finally saw a male Scarlet Tanager, as they tend to be canopy dwellers. I have handled and seen countless others since then. Each time, like the first, I still marvel at their brilliance.

I banded this male Scarlet Tanager at the Rouge River Bird Observatory in Dearborn, Michigan.

There are over 240 species of tanagers in the New World, and frankly they include some of the world’s most beautiful birds. They are really a tropical family, with only four species having evolved to migrate to North America to breed (a fifth is a rare breeder in the deep southwest). All of them retreat to the tropics to spend the winter.

The Scarlet Tanager breeds in large, mature, deciduous forest tracts over much of the eastern U.S. and southern Canada, save for the deep south, and spends the winter in northwestern South America, where they are most common in Ecuador, Bolivia, and the Peruvian Andes. During the nesting season, Scarlet Tanagers prefer to utilize the interior of large tracts of forest. Their sensitivity to fragmented habitats categorizes them as an “area sensitive” species. In small or fragmented woodlots, they suffer from predators and parasitism by cowbirds (which lay their eggs in the nests of other bird species, usually at the expense of their hosts). If a forest is too small (<10 ha), the tanagers will not attempt to nest at all.

Female and young Scarlet Tanagers are much more modestly colored than breeding males. In winter, males look similar to females, but with darker wings.

After their breeding season, the tanagers molt into their more somber winter plumage. The males go from scarlet to  bright olive with black wings. Females are a duller olive with dusky wings — the same color they are year round. This change from eye-catching to cryptic coloration is not unusual. Flashy colors are good ways to advertise for mates and let other birds know a territory is occupied, but are a little too conspicuous to predators the rest of the year. For North American migrant birds that share their wintering areas with many year-round resident birds in the tropics, it’s probably also a good strategy to be a little more modest.

Few species of North American migrant birds make it as far south in winter as the Scarlet Tanager. Their habits during winter are not well known, as they tend to be inconspicuous and spend most of their time in the canopy. While in the breeding season, Scarlet Tanagers eat insects almost exclusively, they also eat fruit in the winter.  They have been recorded on shade coffee farms in Central America (Panama and Nicaragua) during migration, as well as in winter. As canopy dwellers, they utilize the shade trees and do not find sun coffee appropriate habitat.

Two of the other North American breeding tanagers, Western Tanager (P. ludoviciana) and Summer Tanager (P. rubra) are also found on shade coffee farms.

Perhaps few North American breeding birds remind us so strongly that they are not really “our” birds, but tropical species on loan for a few short months in the summer. When we contemplate that fact, it reminds us that habitat on the wintering grounds — such as shade coffee farms — are truly critical for their survival. Support shade-grown coffee, so that future generations can open a field guide, become inspired by a vivid tanager, and discover that they really do exist.

Female-plumaged tanager photo by Jamie Chavez under a Creative Commons license.

Black-crowned Palm-Tanager. Photo by Pat Johnson, taken during field work he performed with the Vermont Center for Ecostudies. VCE has done incredible work in Hispaniola.

There are two species of palm-tanagers (Phaenicophilus) found on Hispaniola, the island comprised of the Dominican Republic (DR) and Haiti.  One is the widespread Black-crowned Palm-Tanager (P. palmarum). The other is the only species of bird unique to Haiti: the Gray-crowned Palm-Tanager (P. poliocephalus). The latter is restricted primarily to the Tiburon Peninsula, the long arm of land in that forms the southeast coastline of the island, where it replaces the Black-crowned. At one time, the peninsula was separated from the rest of the island by the sea, allowing many endemic species to evolve. It is believed this is when the Black-crowned and Gray-crowned Palm-Tanagers diverged into two species. The two species are similar, with the Gray-crowned having (as you may have guessed) a gray rather than black crown, less white on the throat, and some smaller physical features.

Both of these resident species will use many kinds of forest habitats, from humid deciduous to pine, from sea level to upper montane elevations over 2000 meters. They will also use well-vegetated gardens and farms. In many regions, this adaptability would provide the birds with some habitat security. However, deforestation has been so severe on Hispaniola that in many places wooded areas, including agroforests, are so fragmented, degraded, or just plain uncommon that many forest bird species are struggling. The situation is particularly precarious in Haiti, where it is estimated that only 1.5% of the original forested areas survive.

The palm-tanagers forage on insects, often found in dead leaves or under bark, and some fruit. During the non-breeding season, Black-crowned Palm-Tanagers are typically found alone or in pairs, while Gray-crowned Palm-Tanagers are often found in groups of four to six birds.

Portrait of a Gray-crowned Palm-Tanager on a Haitian postage stamp.

Gray-crowned Palm-Tanagers (known locally as “Kat Je Sid” or “Cuatro Ojos”) really deserve special mention. They are locally common on the Tiburon Peninsula, especially in Pic Macaya National Park — little is known about their current status outside this tenuously-protected area. In fact, recent research has not revealed conclusive evidence that they occur east of a line extending south from Port-a-Prince, but historical reports indicate that their range may extend closer to the DR border.

A combination of reforestation and agroforestry crops such as shade coffee would certainly facilitate the conservation of this species. Coffee is produced in the Pic Macaya region. At one point it was roasted and sold by Barrington Coffee Roasting (see our review), Irving Farm Coffee, and Wicked Joe, but I could not find it available at the time of this writing.

However, shade coffee is currently being produced and exported by the Cooparative des Planteurs de Café de l’Arrondissement de Belle-Anse (COOPCAB) based in Thiotte, close to the DR border. This is a group of seven cooperatives representing 5000+ members. It is typica coffee grown at 1300-1350 m in mixed pine forest near Gras Cheval, north of Thiotte, and is usually branded as Blue Forest coffee. It is being most widely promoted and distributed by La Colombe Torrefaction. La Colombe is assisting COOPCAB in getting Rainforest Alliance certification.

The pine forests are critical for endangered Hispaniolan Crossbill, Loxia megaplaga, an island endemic. This bird, once considered a subspecies of the White-winged Crossbill of northern coniferous forests, feeds exclusively on the seeds of Hispaniolan pine (Pinus occidentalis). Forested areas in Haiti and the DR are also essential to North American migrant birds, especially the rare Bicknell’s Thrush. Birds do not represent the only important or unique species that rely on Haiti’s dwindling habitats. The country is host to many other endemic species, including one of the smallest frogs in the world.

The importance of income-producing, habitat-restoring agriculture to Hispaniola’s people, flora, and fauna cannot be underestimated. Given its history and potential, shade coffee is an excellent candidate.

Learn more:

• Coffee growing on Hispaniola, here at Coffee & Conservation. Coffee review links included.
• The Plight of Haiti’s Cloud Forest Birds. Birdscope, Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
• In Search of Haiti’s Birds. Living Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
• Vermont Center for Ecostudies Hispaniolan Bird Conservation and Haiti Protected Areas Conservation research.
• Important Bird Areas in Haiti (PDF). BirdLife International.
• Audubon Society Haiti.

Literature:

McDonald, M. A., and M. H. Smith. 1994.  Behavioral and morphological correlates of heterochrony in Hipaniolan Palm-Tanagers.  Condor 96: 433-446.

Sly, N. D., Townsend,  A. K., Rimmer, C. C., Townsend, J. M., Latta, S., and I. J. Lovette. 2010. Phylogeography and conservation genetics of the Hispaniolan endemic Palm-tanagers (Aves: Phaenicophilus). Conservation Genetics 11: 2121-2129.

Rimmer, C. C., Townsend, J. M., Townsend, A. K., Fernandez, E. M., and J. Alamonte. 2005. Avian diversity, abundance, and conservation status in the Macaya Biosphere Reserve of Haita. Ornithologia Neotropical 16:219-230.

Townsend, J. M. 2009. Gray-crowned Palm-Tanager (Phaenicophilus poliocephalus), Neotropical Birds Online (T. S. Schulenberg, Ed). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; retrieved from Neotropical Birds Online: http://neotropical.birds.cornell.edu/portal/species/overview?p_p_spp=46132

The tiny, bright yellow bird that John  James Audubon called “Wilson’s Flycatching Warbler” breeds in a large swath all across northern North America. Wilson’s Warblers winter in much of Central America, and so pass through most of the continent at some point during the year. Molecular studies have shown that certain breeding populations winter in specific geographic areas. For instance, the most northerly-breeding birds of the western population winter the furthest south in Central America.

Females have duller caps.

One of the original names of Wilson’s Warbler was “Pileolated Warbler” after the male’s striking black skullcap, or pileum. As one of the warblers that has a flattish bill bordered by specialized feather “whiskers” to aid in the capture of small insects, the descriptor of “flycatching” or “flycatcher” was added to its name several times through history. Because he was the first to formally publish a description, ornithologist Alexander Wilson is now honored in the common name.

In the breeding season, the typical habitat of Wilson’s Warblers is dense thickets, especially moist ones in riparian areas. In the winter, however, it can be found in a much wider variety of habitats, which are often more open than nesting habitats. It is most abundant in tropical forests, cloud forest, pine-oak forest, and forest edge habitat, and is frequently found on coffee farms.

While many bird species tend to be somewhat set in their behavior at certain times of the year, wintering Wilson’s Warblers may be solitary, either roaming through a locality or forming a territory, or found in mixed flocks of other birds.  In addition to insects and some fruit, nectar is also consumed in winter. This flexibility in habitat requirements, behavior, and food resources has no doubt contributed to the success of Wilson’s Warblers, which remain one of our most common warblers. Yet recent population trends indicate numbers have declined 2% a year in the U.S., and over 4% a year in the eastern U.S. in recent decades. This is a well-studied species, but we need to know more to understand how to best conserve them. Unfortunately, we often neglect to take action with common species until serious problems are evident.

We have found Wilson’s Warblers common on coffee farms we visited in Panama and Nicaragua. We are about to travel once again to Nicaragua, where we will spend time at Finca El Jaguar in Jinotega, and once again visit to Finca Esperanza Verde in San Ramon, Matagalpa. You’ll be hearing more about our trip soon!

Top male Wilson’s Warbler photo by David Hofmann, female by Jean-Guy Dallaire, and bottom male by Pablo Leautaud, all under a Creative Commons license.

The Horned Guan (Oreophasis derbianus) holds a near-mythical status for birders. It is large –almost the size of a turkey — and bizzare-looking, with a red horn projecting from its head, the exact function of which is unknown. It is rare, a critically endangered species with a population of  fewer than 2000 individuals. It is found in the cloud forests from 1200 to 3500 meters (primarily 2000 to 3000 m) in the Sierra Made de Chiapas of Mexico and in west-central Guatemala. Even a guided journey to accessible areas is described as “grueling,” “brutal,” and “a death march.” Thus, the Horned Guan is one of the most sought-after birds in the world: even Sports Illustrated ran an article about searching for the guan; the group included George Plimpton.

The Horned Guan is the sole member of its genus, and a member of the cracid family. This is the same family as the Jacu I wrote about in a previous post, the bird that eats and craps out coffee in Brazil and the source of “Jacu coffee.” Unlike other cracids, though, Horned Guans spend most of their time in trees rather than on the ground. The Horned Guan’s diet is comprised nearly exclusively of  fruit of several dozen species, but also some orchid flowers and leaves. By dispersing the seeds of a large variety of plants, the guans perform an important ecological function maintaining the health of forest diversity.

Horned Guans were discovered in 1844, but the species is so rare and difficult to locate that the nest and eggs were not first observed until 1982 [1]. Its rarity is a result of deforestation over the past century which been caused mostly by farming, much of which is coffee. Horned Guans are also hunted, and this pressure has increased as forest has been converted to agriculture. Now, populations are very small and fragmented.

The core areas of the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve are some of the guan’s most important population centers. Biosphere reserves consist of core areas where no human activity is permitted, surrounded by buffer zones where activities of low ecological impact are practiced. One of the most critical activities is organic shade coffee farming. While Horned Guans are unlikely to occur within the coffee farms themselves, they have been recorded in some of the habitat set-asides in the buffer zones. Overall landscape characteristics have significant influence on biodiversity, especially for species which require large amounts of forest habitat, so the health and preservation of the buffer zones is an integral part of guan conservation.

Because of the communal land ownership in the area, community involvement in buffer zone management at El Triunfo is critical. It wasn’t until the mid-1990s that the first organic coffee farm cooperative was formed. Help from various aid, environmental, and coffee organizations has made organic coffee farming a success for both the communities and conservation. Starbucks has worked extensively here and sources their Shade Grown Mexico offering from these farmers. You can read more about their involvement and the coffee in a previous post.

Ecotourism is also important to communities in the buffer zones and elsewhere in areas where Horned Guans are found. Coffee farms and guan searches are often part of the same tourism projects, and provide income and incentive to preserve habitat for the abundant biodiversity in this region.

The continuing decline of Horned Guan populations has lead to the initiation of captive breeding programs. Fewer than 100 guans are present in a few zoos which are working to understand dietary needs and how to successfully breed the birds in captivity. Even if these projects succeed in raising new generations of guans, if their habitat is gone they can never be released. Their survival as a species in the wild depends on the preservation of their habitat.

Strictly speaking, Horned Guans are not found on shade coffee farms. But in a practical sense they depend on our support of ecologically-responsible activities near their forest homes, the most critical of which is shade coffee growing.

1. GonzÁ¡lez-GarcÁ­a, F. 1995. Reproductive biology and vocalizations of the horned guan Oreophasis derbianus in Mexico. Condor 97:415—426.

Horned Guan painting by Marco Pineda courtesy of CONABIO.

Photo of Horned Guan by Stormtrooper under a Creative Commons license (bird at St. Louis Zoo).

The Black-and-white Warbler (Mniotilta varia) is a small, zebra-striped bird that is unique among our warblers. It is the only representative of its genus, and also the only one whose typical mode of foraging is clinging to and climbing up and down tree limbs and trunks in search of prey found in bark crevices. Black-and-White Warblers breed across much of central and eastern Canada and the eastern U.S. in forested habitats. They winter in Florida and the Gulf Coast, the West Indies, southern Mexico, Central America, and northern South America.

On their tropical wintering grounds, Black-and-White Warblers are frequently found on shaded coffee farms. They were one of the most commonly encountered North American migrants in shade coffee farms of Chiapas, Mexico. In Venezuela, they were found foraging in the coffee understory as well as in the canopy of shade coffee farms. In Jamaica, Black-and-white Warblers were among the birds found on shade coffee farms that preyed upon coffee berry borers, a major coffee pest.

In the Dominican Republic, 65% of Black-and-White Warblers maintained winter residence on shade coffee farms, all of which were smaller than 9 ha. This site persistence indicates that there were adequate resources on these farms for the birds. An amazing 40% of warblers returned to the same farm in which they were originally captured and marked a year or more later. Most small songbirds, especially those that make twice-annual long-distance migrations, have very short lifespans, so this return rate is impressive. It also underscores that migratory birds rely on finding their winter habitats intact when they return from nesting in order to survive.

Since 1973, researchers have been monitoring overwintering migrant birds in Puerto Rico, where Black-and-white Warblers are one of the most common species. They have documented a distressing decline in this species, which now occurs at less than 20% of its original abundance. While the study does not take place on coffee farms, it supports North American Breeding Bird Survey data, which has documented a significant decline of around 1% annually for breeding populations over the same period.

Black-and-white Warblers are still one of the most familiar New World warblers. Yet the studies cited above, as well as others, indicate that even abundant and adaptable species like this one are vulnerable to habitat loss and alteration. Plenty of research has shown that shade coffee farms are important wintering habitat for Black-and-white Warblers. Let’s make sure that when they make their annual sojourn to the tropics, they continue to find these farms for their winter homes.

See more in the “Know your coffee birds” series.

Photo of Black-and-white Warbler banded at the Rouge River Bird Observatory by Julie Craves. All rights reserved.

Range map from Cornell’s All About Birds.

Faaborg, J., K. M. Dugger, and W. J. Arendt. 2007. Long-term variation in the winter resident bird community of GuÁ¡nica Forest, Puerto Rico: lessons for measuring and monitoring species richness. Journal of Field Ornithology 78:270—278.

Greenberg R., P. Bichier, and J. Sterling. 1997 Bird populations in rustic and planted shade coffee plantations of eastern Chiapas, Mexico. Biotropica 29:501-514.

Johnson, M., J. Kellermann, and A. Stercho. 2010. Pest reduction services by birds in shade and sun coffee in Jamaica. Animal Conservation 13:140-147.

Jones, J., P. Ramoni-Perazzi, E. H. Carruthers, and R. J. Robertson. 2002. Species composition of bird communities in shade coffee plantations in the Venezuelan Andes. Ornitologia Neotropical 13:397-412.

Wunderle, J. M. Jr., and S. C. Latta 2000. Winter site fidelity of Nearctic migrants in shade coffee plantations of different sizes in the Dominican Republic. Auk 117:596—614.

The Rufous-capped Warbler (Basileuterus rufifrons) is found through much of Central America, north through Mexico. This species is occasionally found in the southwestern U.S., when it creates a sensation among birders.

This warbler is a common resident of shade coffee farms all year long, where it can be the dominant foliage-gleaning species. This is a foraging method where birds pick off insects from the upper and undersides of leaves. Many birds that occupy coffee farms make the most use out of remaining forested patches, the canopy trees, and associated epiphytes — thus the importance of shade-grown coffee to birds. Rufous-capped Warblers are in the minority in that they also forage within the coffee layer as well.

Two of my former Rouge River Bird Observatory student volunteers co-authored a paper on Rufous-capped Warbler foraging habits on a shade coffee farm in Chiapas, Mexico [1]. They knew from previous research that many resident species like the warbler that use shade coffee move to other habitats once wintering migrants from North America arrive, perhaps to reduce competition. Rufous-capped Warblers stay put, but shift from their foraging in all the layers of vegetation to focusing on the coffee and shrub understory in the winter. This is also likely due to competition for resources, since many North American migrants prefer to forage in the canopy layer.

This shift to lower foraging heights was in evidence when we visited Finca Esperanza Verde in Nicaragua, where we caught multiple Rufous-capped Warblers in the coffee production area, including the one photographed above.

This is just another example of the complex interactions between resident and migratory birds in the tropics, an intricate dance coordinated over thousands of years of evolution. The Rufous-capped Warbler has adapted well to shade coffee production. Let’s drink shade-grown coffee, and keep them around.

[1] Seasonal shift in the foraging niche of a tropical avian resident: resource competition at work? Jedlicka, J., R., Greenberg, I. Perfecto, S. M. Philpott, and T. V. Dietsch. 2006. Journal of Tropical Ecology 22:385-395.

Photo by Darrin O’Brien, all rights reserved, used with permission.

The Wood Thrush, a relative of the familiar American Robin, is often considered a symbol of the population declines of birds that nest in North America and winter in the tropics. This species has been declining since the mid-1960s, and is on the National Audubon Society’s 2007 WatchList of declining birds.

Wood Thrushes nest in forests over much of the eastern U.S. Like most other songbirds, they migrate at night. These thrushes travel an average of 2200 km between their nesting areas and wintering grounds in Central America.

In the winter, Wood Thrushes are most common in primary and mature second growth forests, and they can be a familiar site on polyculture shade coffee farms from Mexico to Panama. For instance, they are the most commonly banded species at the gorgeous shade farm Finca Esperanza Verde in Nicaragua — we caught and saw a number of them when we were there in March 2009.

One reason for Wood Thrush declines may be tropical deforestation. At least one study has found a correlation between reduced numbers of Wood Thrushes and reduction in forest cover in the northern portion of their wintering range [1].

Wood Thrushes will choose and defend a territory in the winter, much as they do when they are nesting. However, as forests are destroyed in the tropics (including for sun coffee), Wood Thrushes are forced to become nomadic — a case of too many Wood Thrushes and other species, and not enough space. These thrushes must move from place to place, or settle in habitat that is low quality. These birds are less likely to survive the winter than individuals who have territories in a good forest patch [2].

Here in North America, habitat fragmentation is considered another cause of Wood Thrush population declines. As in the tropics, Wood Thrushes can be found in small woodlots or low quality habitat, but their chances of successfully raising a brood are greatly diminished in these situations. In fragmented forests, predators are more common, as are Brown-headed Cowbirds, which lay their eggs in the nests of other birds, often targeting Wood Thrushes. These factors contribute to dramatic rates of nest failure in some locations.

The Wood Thrush and coffee connection is so iconic that this bird has been found on the coffee packages or web sites of Birds and Beans, Coffee for the Birds, Audubon Coffee, and Counter Culture Sanctuary Coffee, to name a few. Wood Thrushes are considered “area sensitive,” needing good, intact forests throughout their annual cycle. High-quality shade coffee plantations represent essential habitat for this species, and your choice of coffee has a direct impact on the survivorship of Wood Thrushes and other birds that rely on tropical forests.

Wood Thrush photo by Eddie Calloway under a Creative Commons License.

[1] Rappole, J. H., G. V. N. Powell, and S. A. Sader. 1994. Remote-sensing assessment of tropical habitat availability for a nearctic migrant: the Wood Thrush. In Miller, R. I. (ed.). 1994. Mapping the diversity of nature. Chapman & Hall, London, England.

[2] Deinlein, M. 1998. A “Sing”-ular Sensation. Wood Thrush: Bird of the Month. Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center.

One of the most enduring memories of my visit to Finca Hartmann is that of passing a spot that was frequently visited by a vivid male Violet Sabrewing (Campylopterus hemileucurus), a large tropical hummingbird found from southern Mexico to western Panama. Many of us in the U.S., especially in the east, think of hummingbirds as diminutive creatures. Violet Sabrewings, however, are big, spectacular birds the size of sparrows. The males are a brilliant dark violet while the females are largely metallic green. Both sexes have white-tipped outer tail feathers that flash as they hover and flit about. They are unmistakable and not soon forgotten.

Violet Sabrewings are most common at 900-1650 meters, the same elevations at which coffee is grown. These hummingbirds like open forests or edge habitats where they can find an abundance of flowering plants, and are found on most bird lists of shade coffee farms within their range.

Hummingbirds are among the most important pollinators, especially in the tropics. Many tropical plants have co-evolved with their specialized hummingbird pollinators, so that the flower is shaped in such a way that only a hummingbird with a matching bill can pollinate it. Violet Sabrewings pollinate a wide variety of flowers, and utilize a foraging strategy known as long distance traplining. They repeatedly visit flowers along a long, fixed route.

Coffee itself is rarely pollinated by hummingbirds (arabica coffee is self-pollinating, although fruit set increases when bees help cross-pollinate). Therefore, sabrewings and other hummingbirds are rarely found in sun coffee farms, but are reliant on the other flowering trees and plants found in shade coffee. Trees in the genus Erythrina are commonly used to shade coffee, and most tropical species are pollinated only by hummingbirds. Bananas and plantains, also frequently used in shade coffee, heliconias, and various ephiphytes are all very important to Violet Sabrewings and other hummingbirds. This plant diversity is not found in sun coffee, but shade coffee farms provide excellent habitat for these dazzling birds.

Another important feature for Violet Sabrewings found in shade coffee farms is nesting habitat. This species inevitably nests on the branch of a tree or shrub over a small stream (we found several nests near creeks at Finca Esperanza Verde). Some source of running water is characteristic of most coffee farms in Latin America, which use the washed or wet processing method. Without streamside vegetation, it’s unlikely Violet Sabrewings could nest successfully.

Another group of organisms depends on hummingbirds to complete their life cycle. Known as hummingbird mites, these tiny invertebrates live and reproduce in flowers, feeding primarily on the nectar. There is only one way for these specialists to move between plants: in the nostrils of hummingbirds. Mites that need to move to another flower of  their specific host plant (when the flower is dying) must clamber onto the bill and into the nostrils of a hummingbird in the brief few seconds the hummingbird is probing the flower. The mites recognize the scent of their host plants, and have an equally brief time to disembark into a new flower.

Hummingbird mites do not harm the birds; in ecological terms this is known as phoretic commensalism, when one species (the mite) uses another (the hummingbird) just for transportation. The mite benefits, the bird is not affected.

Swaths of sun coffee fragment hummingbird habitat, creating barren deserts essentially void of these beautiful birds, all for the want of a cheap cup of coffee. Save hummingbirds (and hummingbird mites!), drink sustainably-grown shade coffee.

Top photo by Jerry Oldenettel, second by Doug Greenberg, under Creative Commons licenses. Violet Sabrewing nest at Finca Esperanza Verde by Darrin O’Brien and Julie Craves, all rights reserved.

The beautiful Baltimore Oriole (Icterus galbula) is a familiar summertime sight across eastern North America (as is its western counterpart, the Bullock’s Oriole, I. bullockii; the two were once considered the same species). Their cheerful whistled notes and distinctive bag-like hanging nests are characteristic of woodland edges, open areas with scattered tall trees, and mature suburban neighborhoods. The brilliant orange and black plumage of adult males (young males, females, and juveniles are all duller) make the Baltimore Oriole one of the most colorful and arresting species of songbird in North America.

One reason these orioles are so beloved is that they are easily attracted to feeding stations which offer grape jelly or oranges sliced in half. Baltimore Orioles are also conspicuous in spring and early summer as they feed on the nectar and pollen of the blossoms of flowering trees. Although during most of the nesting season they feed on insects, as do most songbirds, it is this affection for fruit and nectar that hint at the habits of orioles on their Latin American wintering grounds.

Trees in the large genus Inga are popular shade trees in Latin American coffee farms. They are fast-growing, evergreen, easy to prune, and fix nitrogen in the soil. While their overuse generally does not benefit biodiversity if they are planted at the expense of a variety of other trees, Ingas do have wildlife value. They produce an abundance of flowers in the dry season (our winter) to which many birds are attracted. Nectar and pollen are important food sources for birds during the dry season, when fewer insects are available.

The nearly ubiquitous presence of Inga on coffee farms almost always assures the presence of Baltimore Orioles on these farms in their wintering range as well. In fact, surveys in Chiapas, Mexico found more Baltimore Orioles in coffee farms containing Inga than in farms with more extensive tree cover or in mature forest.

In areas where coffee farms have been converted to sun coffee, Inga-shaded farms have become important refuges for orioles as well as other species. Small flocks of Baltimore Orioles, working their way through coffee farms in the mid-canopy of Inga are a frequent sight from Mexico through Central America. Other flowering trees that are often grown as shade trees in coffee farms, such as Erythrina and Gliricidia, are also visited by orioles and other birds. Many of these trees are pollinated only by birds and provide farmers with fuelwood and fruit in addition to shading their coffee. A fine example of the interconnectedness of coffee, shade trees, birds, and people in Latin America.

Top oriole photo from Wikimedia Commons, bottom by JimGuy, used with permission; map by Cornell Lab of Ornithology.