July 2011

Background information

All about robusta: what it is, and what it might be

A primer on robusta coffee on a blog with over 400 posts seems a little tardy. For the most part, the message to consumers who are looking for high-quality coffee grown in a sustainable manner has been to simply avoid nearly all readily-available coffees containing robusta. But the world is changing, and we may all be getting to know robusta a little better in the future. It seems fitting to offer a little introduction.

What is “robusta”?
There are over 100 species of the genus Coffea in the world, and all are native to tropical Africa and some Indian Ocean islands. Two species, C. arabica and C. canephora, are commonly grown commercially. Coffea canephora is commonly referred to as “robusta,” and makes up about 25 to 40% of the coffee grown for consumption. Some consider only the upright forms of C. canephora to be called robusta, with spreading forms called “Nganda.”

Robusta grows in hotter (22 to 26 C), more humid climates than arabica coffee (18—21 C), and at lower elevations (from about 200 to 900 m). It has large leaves, deep roots, and flowers and fruits in globe-like clusters. It tends to be more hardy and disease-resistant and grows better in the sun than arabica, and it also tends to have higher yields. Robusta has a higher caffeine content (30 to 50% more) than arabica. While arabica coffee  is self-pollinating, robusta requires cross-pollination by insects or wind. Robusta cherries take a little longer to ripen, ten or eleven months versus around nine for arabica. Robusta is a diploid with 22 chromosomes, as are all other species of Coffea except arabica, which is a tetraploid with 44.

Because of its heat tolerance, and the desire to produce high yields, robusta coffee is often grown at high densities in full sun. Large yields require high inputs of fertilizer and water. In countries where robusta cultivation has been encouraged and expanding, such as Vietnam, shade agroforestry systems and native forests have been removed in favor of growing the coffee in full sun.

History

Native to equatorial Africa, robusta was not really planted until coffee leaf rust wiped out much of the arabica coffee in the world in the late 1800s. Robusta was found to be quite resistant to the fungus, as it is to some other troublesome diseases and pests. Now, robusta is grown in Africa, including in Uganda, Cote d’Ivoire, Cameroon, and the Democratic Republic of Congo; and in Asia, including Java, Timor, Sri Lanka, Sumatra, and above all, Vietnam. India, Mexico, Brazil (where a mild variety called Conilon/Kouillou is cultivated), and Guatemala grow both robusta and arabica. The largest grower is Vietnam, with over a half million ha devoted to robusta coffee, versus fewer than 30,000 ha in the mid-1980s.

Quality

Robusta beans tend to be more bitter and harsher than arabica. Words often used to describe robusta include rubbery, cereal or-grain like, flat, musty, or woody.

There are two primary uses for robusta. One is to add body and crema potential to espresso blends, and the other more widespread use is as a cheap filler in grocery store blends. Since so much is used in blends, yield and low cost are emphasized, not quality. Instead of focusing on only ripe cherries during harvest, robusta is often strip-picked, where all cherries are removed from the tree whether they are ripe or not. Less care is taken in processing; usually cherries are laid out to dry after harvest, without any further sorting.

In order to counter the unpleasant flavors of the robusta used in inexpensive coffee, multinational roasters have devised various methods to treat the beans, such as pre-drying, steaming, mixing it with a fatty material then soaking it in acetone, or roasting it so that “heavy, roasted burnt notes are developed” before blending. Yum.

Another way robusta is used is genetically — to confer some resistance to coffee rust and other pests and diseases into higher-quality arabica coffee. A hybrid between robusta and arabica from Timor, called Hibrido de Timor (HdT), has become the basis of a number of other varieties bred for their resistance to rust and other diseases. Generally, HdT is back-crossed with various arabica varieties such as caturra. Examples of varietals with robusta heritage include Catimor, Colombia, Sarchimor, Costa Rica 95, Castillo, Tabi, Icatu, and Ruiru 11.  Improving the cup quality of robusta-derived hybrids is a major challenge, especially because…

…We may be seeing more of robusta

Climate change may be driving us towards robusta. Unpredictable weather, including more frequent and prolonged rainy periods and higher temperatures, increase the incidence of coffee rust, coffee berry borer, and other pests and diseases. The replacement of heirloom varieties of arabica with disease-resistant varieties is already underway in countries like Colombia and India. Researchers are also exploring drought and heat tolerant coffee — and again, robusta genes play a role.

Further, rising global temperatures also mean that areas that are appropriate today for the cultivation of arabica coffee — cooler, upper altitudes — will likely become unsuitable within a few decades (arabica could move upslope, if land is available). However, these areas may support robusta production. If this conversion occurs, will robusta be grown under shade, or will shaded arabica coffee plantations or forests be replaced by robusta grown in sun monocultures?

So more robusta may be in our future. Some initiatives regarding improving the quality of robusta are already underway. In 2009, a number of workshops were held focusing on establishing standards for high quality robusta. Right now, this initiative is centered around cupping protocol and vocabulary, physical grading, and roasting profiles. Then energy needs to be directed at researching what creates high quality, including growing conditions and husbandry. Hopefully, that will lead to cultivation methods that incorporate biodiversity preservation.

Resources and further reading

DeMatta, F. M. 2004. Ecophysiological constraints on the production of shaded and unshaded coffee: a review. Field Crops Research 86:99-114.

Eakin, H., Winkels, A., and J. Sendzimir. 2008. Nested vulnerability: exploring cross-scale linkages and vulnerability teleconnections in Mexican and Vietmanese coffee systems. Environmental Science and Policy 4:398-412.

Leroy, T., R. Fabienne, B. Benoit, P. Charmetant, M. Dufour, C. Montagnon, P. Marraccini, and D.Pot. 2006. Genetics of coffee quality. Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology 18: 229-242.

Marsh, A. 2007. Diversification by smallholder farmers: Viet Nam Robusta Coffee. Agricultural Management, Marketing, and Finance Working Document No. 19. FAO, United Nations, Rome.

Van Der Vossen, H.A.M. 2009. The cup quality of disease-resistant cultivars of arabica coffee (Coffea arabica). Experimental Agriculture 45: 323-332.

 

Flowering robusta in India from Wikimedia Commons; robusta beans by Michael Allen Smith, under a Creative Commons license.

Smithsonian Bird-Friendly

Bird-Friendly certifies coffees in Nicaragua

Approximate locations of Bird-Friendly certified producers in Nicaragua.

From my accounts of previous trips, readers know I have a soft spot for Nicaragua. So I’m happy to report that the Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center has now has three Bird-Friendly certified coffee producers in the country.

Selva Negra — Selva Negra, near Jinotega, is 450 ha that consists of an ecolodge, organic gardens, ponds, 150 ha of preserved cloud forest, and a coffee farm (actually named Finca La Hammonia, although usually referred to as Selva Negra).  About 120 to 150 ha are in shade coffee production, much of it organic; 87 ha is now certified Bird-Friendly. Finca La Hammonia grows bourbon and caturra between 1200 and 1300 m.  The sustainability efforts of Selva Negra are extensive and well-known, the farm has long been Rainforest Alliance certified, and the coffee has been well-represented in the U.S. by multiple roasters, including Allegro/Whole Foods.

The forested area has numerous trails (I have been there twice), hosts over 500 tree species, 130 species of orchids, and at least 280 species of birds. A number of restricted-range, rare bird species that are hard to find elsewhere are common at Selva Negra, including Three-wattled Bellbird (conservation status “Vulnerable”) and Resplendent Quetzal (Near Threatened).

Read more at their excellent web site.

UniÁ³n de Cooperativas Agropecuarias San Juan del Rio Coco — This cooperative is located in the northern department of Madriz, near the towns of San Juan del Rio Coco and Telpaneca. The certified area covers 709 ha and 128 growers, and the co-op is also certified Fair Trade and Utz Certified.

Gaia Estate (Finca Bosques de Gaia) – This small, 18-ha farm owned by Jefferson Shriver and Gabriela Navarez is located outside the familiar central highlands of Nicaragua, south of the capital Managua near Diriamba, Carazo department.

Birds & Beans has contracted with all of these producers and will incorporate the beans in two of their coffees this fall.  They purchased all of Gaia’s current crop, and it will appear in the Wood Thrush variety, and Selva Negra’s coffee will be in the Chestnut-sided Warbler variety.  San Juan del Rio Coco should show up next year.

A list of all current Bird-Friendly certified farms can be found here.

Research on coffee growing

Coffee leaf rust: a complex disease

Coffee leaf rust in Bolivia. Photo by Neil Palmer (CIAT).

Coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix) is fungus that is one of the most devastating coffee diseases in the world. Native to Africa, it is now present in every coffee-growing nation. Infected leaves drop off, weakening the plant. Copper-based fungicides can be effective against coffee rust. However, it must be on the leaf surface to prevent infection, and copper can build up in soils, eventually reaching toxic levels.

The spores of coffee rust are spread by wind or rain, and will only germinate when exposed to one to two days of continuous wetness. Usually humidity is not enough; rain provides the necessary conditions.  Latin America has suffered through more frequent and prolonged rainy periods in recent years as have parts of Asia, thought to be due to climate change. As a result, coffee rust has been having increasing detrimental effects on coffee production.

Aside from fungicide application, there are two lines of defense against coffee rust: planting resistant hybrids, and modifying cultivation methods.

When coffee rust first arrived in the New World, around 1970 in Brazil, nearly all coffee being grown commercially was genetically nearly identical and very susceptible to rust. Thus, the development of rust-resistant hybrids has been an important element in battling this disease. Rust fights back, of course; there are over 40 strains of coffee rust, some of which now attack previously-resistant hybrids.

Colombia has made a large investment in “renovating” the nation’s coffee farms by swapping out older coffee varieties with rust-resistant types. This has been accomplished on a third of Colombia’s coffee lands so far. Some of the resistant varieties include Castillo, Tabi, and Colombia. One thing they all have in common is parentage that includes Hibrido de Timor, which in itself is a natural hybrid between arabica coffee (Coffea arabica) and robusta coffee (C. canephora).

Reliance on selective breeding and fungicides have more or less dominated the fight against rust, because there is debate about which cultivation method, sun or shade, helps mitigate this disease. This is in large part because the various factors that influence the severity of coffee rust outbreaks can be influenced, sometimes dramatically, by microclimate. This makes farm-wide management decisions tricky. Some examples of the quandary:

  • In full sun, plants dry out faster, hindering the germination and spread of rust, and sun may kill the fungus. However, pores (stoma) on the surface of leaves open up at high levels of light intensity, allowing more frequent and deep penetration of rust spores that are present.
  • Coffee grown in sun (especially if generously fertilized, as is usually the case) produces heavy yields. This over-bearing stresses the plants and makes them more apt to succumb to rust and other diseases.
  • Shade increases the life of leaves and their size, so rust spores have more leaf area to colonize and time to be dispersed.
  • Coffee types that are less genetically resistant to rust show lower levels of infection at lower levels of light intensity.
  • Shade trees intercept raindrops in gentle rains, so spores are not dispersed. In heavier rains, however, larger drops of rain accumulate and splash on the coffee, releasing many spores.

One very interesting bit of research suggests that growing coffee under shade can facilitate complex ecological connections that help fight coffee rust in Latin America. Green coffee scale (Coccus viridus) is a small insect that has many hosts, including coffee (on which it is usually more of a nuisance than a pest). Like many scale insects, it has a mutalistic relationship with some species of ants. The ants feed on “honeydew,” a sweet substance exuded by the scale insects. In exchange, the ants defend the scale insects from predators.  Meanwhile, green coffee scale can be infected with a fungus (Lecanicillium [Cephalosporium] lecanii) …which also attacks coffee leaf rust. Researchers have found that where green coffee scales are protected by a particular common species of ant (Azteca instabilis) which nests primarily in the shade trees, the scale insects reach localized population levels that enable the Lecanicillium fungus to attack the coffee rust.

Although not conclusive, this study suggests that shade coffee systems may provide some level of biological control over coffee leaf rust, and in fact this ant-scale-fungi relationship may be one reason rust was not as devastating in the New World as it was in the Old World. (The ants, scales, and fungi are only part of this very complicated system, which also includes a decapitating fly, wasps, and a lady beetle; see Vandermeer et al. 2010 for more fascinating details.)

Avelino, J., Willocquet, L., & Savary, S. (2004). Effects of crop management patterns on coffee rust epidemics Plant Pathology, 53 (5), 541-547 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3059.2004.01067.x

Vandermeer, J., Perfecto, I., & Liere, H. (2009). Evidence for hyperparasitism of coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix) by the entomogenous fungus, Lecanicillium lecanii, through a complex ecological web Plant Pathology, 58 (4), 636-641 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3059.2009.02067.x

Vandermeer, J., Perfecto, I., & Philpott, S. (2010). Ecological Complexity and Pest Control in Organic Coffee Production: Uncovering an Autonomous Ecosystem Service BioScience, 60 (7), 527-537.

Fair and Direct Trade

Sips: Fair Trade debate

There are so many great voices in the fair/Fair trade movement, I keep out of it aside from environmental aspects of certification and occasional links. Here are a few of those links to some posts I have found most thought-provoking lately. Fair Trade is having growing pains, and recent high market prices for coffee have added to the turmoil.

The Stanford Social Innovation Review is a publication of the Center on Philanthropy and Civil Society at Stanford University. They recently ran two pieces on Fair Trade. The first, is The Problem with Fair Trade Coffee, by Colleen Haight, an assistant professor at San Jose State University. About a third of the way down is a good illustration of the author’s interpretation of why Fair Trade coffee has a “quality problem.” Lots of history and stats in the piece, and excellent comments, as well.

They followed up with a rebuttal from Fair Trade USA head Paul Rice, Fair Trade: A Model for Sustainable Development.

Meanwhile, Small Farmers. Big Change the blog of Equal Exchange, an alternative trade organization, also put out two pieces. Fair Trade is NOT the End Goal: Part I and Part II. Part I explained the pressures on co-ops during periods of uncertain high market prices, and the choices they face when it is time to deliver on pre-negotiated contracts which will pay less than the market price. One passage struck me,

When the coffee starts coming in, the competition (in the form of multi-national businesses) is knocking at the farm gates offering farmers more money for their beans than the price the co-op has promised them.

I added the emphasis. I suppose anybody could come along and offer higher prices at the farm gate, but look who is specifically singled out* as the entity who is trying to get  farmers to break their contracts with their co-ops: corporate coffee. As the post explains, this far-reaching problems. And those multinationals won’t be at the farm gate when prices drop again.

Part II is a view of the future of Fair Trade by Santiago Paz, co-manager, CEPICAFE, a co-op in Peru.

Food for thought.

*Update: A Wall Street Journal article, “Battle brewing over coffee” published on 17 July confirmed it is the “cash flush” multinationals tempting the farmers. The first sentence reads, “Rising prices have upended the coffee trade, as multinational brokers increasingly woo farmers away from local cooperatives in the world-wide scramble for beans.” It specifically mentioned these are representatives from  Nestlé SA,  ED&F Man Holdings Ltd.,  and Ecom Agroindustrial Corp. Ltd. The latter two are very large organizations that include coffee divisions (ED&F Man’s is Volcafe) that buy coffee for multinational roasters. These companies say that it’s up to the farmers who to sell to.

That’s true, and I can’t really blame the farmers, who need the cash. But these multinationals won’t be providing loans and support when coffee prices drop, and if the cooperatives go under, nobody will.

Maybe these high prices wouldn’t be as tempting if we’d been paying the real cost of coffee all along, providing a price that reflects all the work that goes into growing coffee, and enough for farmers to cover their costs of production and feed their families, send their kids to school, and invest in their farms and communities.

There is no such thing as cheap coffee.

Update #2: Fairtrade International (FLO) has been holding workshops on risk management and contract negotiation for cooperative managers to help them with the problems surrounding defaults on their contracts. FLO reports that Bolivia, Peru and Indonesia were the countries hit hardest by co-op member defaults. Read more here.

Photo by Ian Murchison under a Creative Commons license.

Climate change

Two degrees up

The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) produced a series of short films on what a changing climate could mean for farming communities in East and West Africa, and South America. The segment below is the impact on coffee producers in Colombia — not only what changing climate could mean, but what it does mean already.




This film is also available in Spanish. The other films in the series chronicle land conflict and rural displacement in Ghana and water scarcity in Kenya.