Birds and other biodiversity

Birds and other biodiversity / Coffee regions

How “wild” is Ethiopian forest coffee?

Ethiopia is the birthplace of coffee.  Coffea arabica originates in and still grows wild in Ethiopia in areas which are included in the Eastern Afromontane Biodiversity hotspot.  This hotspot — which also covers areas in the coffee-growing regions of Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi — has been reduced to 10% of its original extent. In Ethiopia, only about 2000 sq km of high-quality forest with wild arabica coffee remains.

As coffee consumers, we often hear about this “wild” coffee, or the generally rustic way in which coffee is typically grown in Ethiopia, and so we generally feel good about enjoying Ethiopian coffee from an ecological point of view. Technically, coffee is wild if it grows and reproduces or regenerates on its own within natural habitats.

How much Ethiopian coffee is grown in forests? Is it really coming from a pristine environment? Is this method of coffee production really preserving biodiversity?

A number of publications over the past few years help shed some light on this topic, and the results are a bit surprising.  The diagram at right is one I constructed using data from several sources (list at end of post). It indicates the different methods of coffee cultivation in Ethiopia, with rough approximations of the frequency of occurrence of each. Below are the characteristics of each method. This is all necessarily simplified, but most sources are in general agreement.

Plantation coffee (10%). This is the most intense method of coffee cultivation, where land is cleared and planted with coffee and managed for yield, which ranges from 450 to 1200 kg per ha annually (around 750 seems “average”). This includes larger estates, but may also involve small holders.

Garden coffee (or “semi-forest plantation”) (50%). Here coffee plants are transplanted to gardens around farmers’ homes. These plants might come from nearby forest, or farmers may exchange seedlings best adapted to an area or microhabitat; some may originate from a different region. Coffee is typically interplanted with other crops and fruit trees. Garden coffee is found most frequently in southern Ethiopia, including Sidamo, and well as Harerge/Harrar. Yields range from 200 to 700 kg/ha/yr.

Forest coffee (5%).  I think this is what most people probably envision when they hear about “wild” coffee. Here, coffee is harvested from trees growing in the forest, with virtually no management of the surrounding forest or vegetation, except perhaps some removal of undergrowth to facilitate access to the coffee trees. However, it should be noted that several authors have stated that coffee is managed in some way virtually wherever it occurs. Even among locals, “forest coffee” is broadly and variously defined. It may mean old overgrown plantations, or a single coffee tree in a pasture that was once forest. In any event, yields are well below 200 kg per ha, often between a mere 7 to 30 kg.

The Abyssinian Ground-thrush (Zoothera piaggiae) is a very secretive montane forest bird of the Bonga forest, thought to be declining due to habitat loss. Image: Wikimedia Commons.

Semi-forest coffee (35%). Most “forest coffee” is probably really in this category, termed semi-forest coffee. Here, the forest is altered and managed, often quite substantially.  The canopy is thinned once to several times a year to allow more light to reach the coffee and increase yields (which vary greatly depending on the extent of management, but are under 400 kg per ha per year). Trees with open, wide-spreading canopies are favored since fewer trees are needed to provide the preferred amount of shade. Undergrowth, competing shrubs, and emerging seedlings of other plants are removed to make harvesting easier and to make room for more coffee. The coffee grows wild, but is also supplemented by shrubs transplanted from elsewhere. Usually this means from a nearby forest, but occasionally even government-supplied cultivars are utilized.

While semi-forest coffee is better than a coffee monoculture with no canopy cover, several studies have shown that the managing of these forests does have serious consequences. Schmitt et al. (2010) found that in the Bonga region, 30% of canopy trees and most undergrowth was removed in these systems, severely disturbing forest structure.  Although the overall number of plant species increased by 26% in comparison with intact forest, it was due to secondary and pioneer species, mostly herbaceous species and vines. Forest species declined. Of special concern is the reduction in the number of tree ferns, an ancient family of plants which require shady, moist conditions that are becoming rare in some locations. In Jimma, Aerts et al. (2011) found a near-absence of a true upper canopy >15 m tall, and many climax forest species have nearly disappeared, as they are removed and seedlings are not allowed to regenerate.

Increasingly, forest coffee is being managed as semi-forest coffee, and semi-forest coffee is being managed and harvested with increasing intensity as coffee prices rise. The increasing management intensity has profound impacts on the forest and biodiversity. This diversity includes the genetic resources of wild races of Coffea arabica, as the practice of swapping and transplanting coffee, and any interbreeding, erodes the integrity of wild genotypes.

Volkmann (2008) did an analysis of the areas used by two dozen cooperatives that are part of the Kafa Forest Coffee Farmers Cooperative Union, and concluded that the designation “forest coffee” was probably inappropriate for the output of almost half of them, as they are highly degraded forests, or mostly garden coffee. However, in 2010, this area was designated as UNESCO biosphere reserve. Like other biosphere reserves, the goal is to have a core area that is protected, and buffer zones in which sustainable practices are allowed. Planned projects include reforestation.

Coffee is a main source of income in for people who live in regions where it grows wild. The solution isn’t prohibition, but probably some sort of incentive or compensation to manage the coffee in such a way that forest integrity and species are conserved. One idea being explored is some sort of certification that includes a production ceiling (so that managing for higher yields is not encouraged). The International Standards for Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants might be a starting point.

There is much more on the coffee forests of Ethiopia at the web site of the Conservation and use of wild populations of Coffee arabica in the montane rainforests of Ethiopia project web site.

Papers cited and additional resources:

Aerts, R., Hundera, K., Berecha, G., Gijbels, P., Baeten, M., Van Mechelen, M., Hermy, M., Muys, B., and Honnay, O. 2011, in press. Semi-forest coffee cultivation and the conservation of Ethiopian Afromontane rainforest fragments Forest Ecology and Management DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2010.12.025

Gole, T.W., T. Borsch, M. Denich, and D. Teketay. 2008. Floristic composition and environmental factors characterizing coffee forests in southwest Ethiopia. Forest Ecology and Management. 255: 2138-2150.

Gove, A.D., K. Hylander, S. Nemomisa, A. Shimelis. 2008. Ethiopian coffee cultivation — Implications for bird conservation and environmental certification. Conservation Letters 1:208-216.

Hylander, K., and S. Nemomissa. 2008. Home garden coffee as a repository of epiphyte biodiversity in Ethiopia. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 6: 524-528.

Labouisse, J., Bellachew, B., Kotecha, S., and Bertrand, B. 2008. Current status of coffee (Coffea arabica L.) genetic resources in Ethiopia: implications for conservation Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 55:1079-1093. DOI: 10.1007/s10722-008-9361-7

Schmitt, C., Senbeta, F., Denich, M., Preisinger, H., H. Boehmer. 2010. Wild coffee management and plant diversity in the montane rainforest of southwestern Ethiopia African Journal of Ecology 48: 78-86.  DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01084.x

Volkmann, J. 2008. How wild is Ethiopian forest coffee? The disenchantment of a myth. Conservation and use of wild populations of Coffee arabica in the montane rainforests of Ethiopia (CoCE) Project Report, Subproject 5.4. Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn, Germany.

Wiersum, K.F., T.W. Gole, F. Gatzweiler, J. Volkmann, E. Bognetteau, and O. Wirtu. 2008. Certification of wild coffee in Ethiopia: experiences and challenges. Forests, Trees, and Livelihoods. 18: 9-22.

Birds and other biodiversity / Know Your Coffee Birds series

Know your coffee birds: Horned Guan

The Horned Guan (Oreophasis derbianus) holds a near-mythical status for birders. It is large –almost the size of a turkey — and bizzare-looking, with a red horn projecting from its head, the exact function of which is unknown. It is rare, a critically endangered species with a population of  fewer than 2000 individuals. It is found in the cloud forests from 1200 to 3500 meters (primarily 2000 to 3000 m) in the Sierra Made de Chiapas of Mexico and in west-central Guatemala. Even a guided journey to accessible areas is described as “grueling,” “brutal,” and “a death march.” Thus, the Horned Guan is one of the most sought-after birds in the world: even Sports Illustrated ran an article about searching for the guan; the group included George Plimpton.

The Horned Guan is the sole member of its genus, and a member of the cracid family. This is the same family as the Jacu I wrote about in a previous post, the bird that eats and craps out coffee in Brazil and the source of “Jacu coffee.” Unlike other cracids, though, Horned Guans spend most of their time in trees rather than on the ground. The Horned Guan’s diet is comprised nearly exclusively of  fruit of several dozen species, but also some orchid flowers and leaves. By dispersing the seeds of a large variety of plants, the guans perform an important ecological function maintaining the health of forest diversity.

Horned Guans were discovered in 1844, but the species is so rare and difficult to locate that the nest and eggs were not first observed until 1982 [1]. Its rarity is a result of deforestation over the past century which been caused mostly by farming, much of which is coffee. Horned Guans are also hunted, and this pressure has increased as forest has been converted to agriculture. Now, populations are very small and fragmented.

The core areas of the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve are some of the guan’s most important population centers. Biosphere reserves consist of core areas where no human activity is permitted, surrounded by buffer zones where activities of low ecological impact are practiced. One of the most critical activities is organic shade coffee farming. While Horned Guans are unlikely to occur within the coffee farms themselves, they have been recorded in some of the habitat set-asides in the buffer zones. Overall landscape characteristics have significant influence on biodiversity, especially for species which require large amounts of forest habitat, so the health and preservation of the buffer zones is an integral part of guan conservation.

Because of the communal land ownership in the area, community involvement in buffer zone management at El Triunfo is critical. It wasn’t until the mid-1990s that the first organic coffee farm cooperative was formed. Help from various aid, environmental, and coffee organizations has made organic coffee farming a success for both the communities and conservation. Starbucks has worked extensively here and sources their Shade Grown Mexico offering from these farmers. You can read more about their involvement and the coffee in a previous post.

Ecotourism is also important to communities in the buffer zones and elsewhere in areas where Horned Guans are found. Coffee farms and guan searches are often part of the same tourism projects, and provide income and incentive to preserve habitat for the abundant biodiversity in this region.

The continuing decline of Horned Guan populations has lead to the initiation of captive breeding programs. Fewer than 100 guans are present in a few zoos which are working to understand dietary needs and how to successfully breed the birds in captivity. Even if these projects succeed in raising new generations of guans, if their habitat is gone they can never be released. Their survival as a species in the wild depends on the preservation of their habitat.

Strictly speaking, Horned Guans are not found on shade coffee farms. But in a practical sense they depend on our support of ecologically-responsible activities near their forest homes, the most critical of which is shade coffee growing.

1. Gonzalez-Garcia, F. 1995. Reproductive biology and vocalizations of the horned guan Oreophasis derbianus in Mexico. Condor 97:415—426.
Horned Guan painting by Marco Pineda courtesy of CONABIO. Photo of Horned Guan by Stormtrooper under a Creative Commons license (bird at St. Louis Zoo).

Birds and other biodiversity / Know Your Coffee Birds series

Know your coffee birds: Black-and-white Warbler

The Black-and-white Warbler (Mniotilta varia) is a small, zebra-striped bird that is unique among our warblers. It is the only representative of its genus, and also the only one whose typical mode of foraging is clinging to and climbing up and down tree limbs and trunks in search of prey found in bark crevices. Black-and-White Warblers breed across much of central and eastern Canada and the eastern U.S. in forested habitats. They winter in Florida and the Gulf Coast, the West Indies, southern Mexico, Central America, and northern South America.

On their tropical wintering grounds, Black-and-White Warblers are frequently found on shaded coffee farms. They were one of the most commonly encountered North American migrants in shade coffee farms of Chiapas, Mexico. In Venezuela, they were found foraging in the coffee understory as well as in the canopy of shade coffee farms. In Jamaica, Black-and-white Warblers were among the birds found on shade coffee farms that preyed upon coffee berry borers, a major coffee pest.

In the Dominican Republic, 65% of Black-and-White Warblers maintained winter residence on shade coffee farms, all of which were smaller than 9 ha. This site persistence indicates that there were adequate resources on these farms for the birds. An amazing 40% of warblers returned to the same farm in which they were originally captured and marked a year or more later. Most small songbirds, especially those that make twice-annual long-distance migrations, have very short lifespans, so this return rate is impressive. It also underscores that migratory birds rely on finding their winter habitats intact when they return from nesting in order to survive.

Since 1973, researchers have been monitoring overwintering migrant birds in Puerto Rico, where Black-and-white Warblers are one of the most common species. They have documented a distressing decline in this species, which now occurs at less than 20% of its original abundance. While the study does not take place on coffee farms, it supports North American Breeding Bird Survey data, which has documented a significant decline of around 1% annually for breeding populations over the same period.

Black-and-white Warblers are still one of the most familiar New World warblers. Yet the studies cited above, as well as others, indicate that even abundant and adaptable species like this one are vulnerable to habitat loss and alteration. Plenty of research has shown that shade coffee farms are important wintering habitat for Black-and-white Warblers. Let’s make sure that when they make their annual sojourn to the tropics, they continue to find these farms for their winter homes.

See more in the “Know your coffee birds” series.

Photo of Black-and-white Warbler banded at the Rouge River Bird Observatory by Julie Craves. All rights reserved.

Range map from Cornell’s All About Birds.

Faaborg, J., K. M. Dugger, and W. J. Arendt. 2007. Long-term variation in the winter resident bird community of GuÁ¡nica Forest, Puerto Rico: lessons for measuring and monitoring species richness. Journal of Field Ornithology 78:270—278.

Greenberg R., P. Bichier, and J. Sterling. 1997 Bird populations in rustic and planted shade coffee plantations of eastern Chiapas, Mexico. Biotropica 29:501-514.

Johnson, M., J. Kellermann, and A. Stercho. 2010. Pest reduction services by birds in shade and sun coffee in Jamaica. Animal Conservation 13:140-147.

Jones, J., P. Ramoni-Perazzi, E. H. Carruthers, and R. J. Robertson. 2002. Species composition of bird communities in shade coffee plantations in the Venezuelan Andes. Ornitologia Neotropical 13:397-412.

Wunderle, J. M. Jr., and S. C. Latta 2000. Winter site fidelity of Nearctic migrants in shade coffee plantations of different sizes in the Dominican Republic. Auk 117:596—614.

Birds and other biodiversity / Research on coffee growing

Research: Birds reduce coffee pests in Jamaica, take 2

Pest reduction services by birds in shade and sun coffee in Jamaica. 2010. Johnson, M. D., J. L. Kellermann, and A. M. Stercho. Animal Conservation 13:140-147.

Matt Johnson’s team from Humboldt State University (CA) continues its excellent research on birds and ecosystem services on coffee farms in Jamaica. This study, similar to others, looked at pest reduction on a 18 ha farm, Kew Park Coffee. This farm is about 70% shaded; the other 30% has shade trees too young to provide shade yet. The farm also has one side bordered by dense second growth forest.

Exclosures were placed on some coffee trees to prevent birds (but not insects) from accessing them, and the number of insects on these and control trees were examined. The authors found that on trees where birds had access, there was a 40 to 58% reduction in the coffee berry borer (CBB), or broca (Hypothenemus hampei), the world’s most serious coffee pest.

The most common means of controlling CBB are the nasty pesticide endosulfan (although some are developing resistance), or scent traps. Traps are most effective when female CBBs leave coffee cherries to lay eggs in other cherries; the birds in these studies usually attacked the CBBs as they were entering new cherries. Thus, the birds can provide an extra layer of control even on farms that use traps. The authors determined that the pest reduction by the birds on this small farm amounted to 12% of the value of the crop.

This study did not find that birds were more effective at controlling pests in shade than in sun, but it may have been due to the small size of the farm and the proximity of adjacent forested area. A previous study on four different Jamaican farms by some of the same researchers found that the birds consuming CBBs declined dramatically in abundance as distance from forest patches increased. Birds may have made use of the unshaded portions of the farm in the current study because of the amount of forest and shaded coffee surrounding it. I saw a presentation by another member of this research team at a recent ornithological conference that indicated some of the bird species in question foraged in coffee during the day, but retreated to forest patches to roost at night.

Bird species found in the shaded portion of the farm in good numbers, but not at all in the sun portions, included the national bird of Jamaica, the Red-billed Streamertail (Trochilus polytmus), a hummingbird also known as “Doctorbird”, shown above); another resident hummingbird, the Jamaican Mango (Anthracothorax mango); and the North American migrants the Black-and-white Warbler (Mniotilta varia) and Prairie Warbler (Dendroica discolor), which winter on the island.

Johnson, M., Kellermann, J., & Stercho, A. (2010). Pest reduction services by birds in shade and sun coffee in Jamaica Animal Conservation, 13 (2), 140-147 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00310.x